Juhuuu! Im März wurde ein Paper von meinem wiiw-Kollegen Oliver Reiter und mir im East Asian Economic Review veröffentlicht. Wir haben dafür unzählige Indikatoren von nicht-tarifären Handelsmaßnahmen berechnet und ökonometrisch für das EU-Südkorea-Abkommen eingesetzt, das seit 2011 (als erstes umfangreiches EU-Handelsabkommen der "zweiten Generation") angewandt wird. Grübler, J. and O. Reiter (2021), ‘Non-tariff trade policy in the context of deep trade integration: An ex-post gravity model application to the EU-South Korea agreement’, East Asian Economic Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 33-71. https://dx.doi.org/10.11644/KIEP.EAER.2021.25.1.390 |
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By Julia Grübler, Roman Stöllinger und Gabriele Tondl
Environmental protection versus international trade The adoption of the European Green Deal shifted climate protection and environmental sustainability into the focus of EU policies. Trade policy may be a crucial tool in achieving impact across EU borders. Its primary instruments are bi- and plurilateral free trade agreements (FTAs), which stretch all over the world. The premise that FTAs, whose principal objective is to remove trade barriers between participating partners, can contribute to environmental and climate protection, seems surprising at first. After all, lower trade barriers usually mean more international trade and additional emissions related to increased production and transport services. Particularly in developing countries, facilitated access to new markets through FTAs often results in unintended negative environmental effects, e.g. through the establishment of monocultures or accelerated deforestation, which often goes hand in hand with export-oriented agricultural production. Environmental provisions in trade agreements In the European Commission's view, EU trade policy can effectively influence climate and environmental policies of partner countries . In recent years, the so-called ‘trade and sustainability chapters’ have found their way into the EU's FTAs as well as into its Generalised Scheme of Preferences (GSP) for developing countries. Since 2019, the EU also provides for the explicit inclusion of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change in its FTAs to mitigate global warming. In addition, the European Commission expects EU trade policy to facilitate trade in environmentally friendly goods and services and thereby to encourage respective investment Data source: Morin et al. (2018) – TREND database; authors’ calculations.Anlässlich des ersten Jahrestages der Unterzeichnung des EU-Japan Wirtschaftspartnerschaftsabkommens habe ich einen wiiw-News-Artikel auf Englisch verfasst: July 2019 marks the first anniversary of the EU-Japan trade agreement. Initial effects are already observable. However, its full implementation still lies 20 years ahead of us.
The Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) between the EU and Japan was signed one year ago – on 17 July 2018 at the EU-Japan summit in Tokyo. It entered into force on 1 February 2019, surprisingly quickly for an agreement of this type. It is considered the most ambitious EU trade agreement with any Asian economy. EU exports to Japan picked up already last year, while imports have soared during the first months of 2019, suggesting that the EPA may have already had an impact. The increase in trade flows with Japan indeed appears more pronounced compared to trade with other economies outside of the EU28, particularly on the import side (see chart below). Reducing tariffs and non-tariff barriers over two decades Many products entered the Japanese and EU markets duty-free already prior to the establishment of the EPA. 36% of all agricultural products and 55% of industrial products faced no duty when exported to Japan from another WTO member, such as the EU. Likewise, a zero-tariff applied to 32% of agricultural and 26% of industrial goods exported to the EU from other WTO members, such as Japan. Shares of duty-free imports were even higher. Since the agreement came into force, 90% of the EU’s exports to Japan are no longer subject to duties. Although tariffs between the EU and Japan are already at a comparatively low level, the schedule for further tariff reductions to cover 99% of EU tariff lines and 97% of Japanese tariff lines is quite comprehensive (Annex 2-A on tariff elimination and reduction is a document of 236 pages; the agreement itself counts 562 pages). Table: Tariff profiles of Japan and the EU prior to the EPA Shares of tariff lines and shares of imports for different tariff rates The tariff reductions are likely to have a significant impact on the EU’s agricultural sector. The Commission mentions products for which it assumes the biggest gains for Europe. In the agricultural and food sectors a boost in exports of pork, beef, wine, cheese and processed products such as pasta, chocolate, candies or tomato sauce are expected. However, the speed at which tariffs and non-tariff barriers are reduced by both parties varies by product. Schedules are outlined for a period of 20 years after the agreement’s entry into force. Although many trade liberalisation steps are taken during the first years of its application, the full potential of the EPA will only materialise after two decades. Furthermore, tariff cuts are more complex than is often assumed. For example, glucose and glucose syrup containing added sugar are targeted with a tariff of 85.7% or 60.90 yen/kg (whichever is greater). For this product a tariff rate quota was agreed upon (TRQ-13 scheme), increasing the aggregate quota quantity which can enter the Japanese market without duty from 1,780 metric tonnes in the first year to 5,340 metric tonnes for the 12th year and thereafter. Imports exceeding the quota are subject to customs duties unaffected by the EPA. In general, stepwise reductions, mixed tariffs and safeguard clauses arise in more sensitive sectors, e.g. agriculture, which are given more time to adapt to trade liberalisation. Setting a “global gold-standard” Roughly 40% of EU exports and more than 60% of EU imports are machinery, electronic equipment and goods related to the transport sector. For these, an agreement on applying the same international standards – regarding product safety, environmental protection and quality management systems – play a more crucial role than tariff cuts. This is because they make double testing and certification unnecessary, thereby reducing non-tariff barriers to bilateral trade. For example, Japan is aligning its standards for cars and car parts to vehicle regulations laid out by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), which also form the basis for EU standards. The EPA with Japan also covers sensitive topics so far underrepresented in trade agreements. Out of 296 agreements covered by the Trade Agreement Heterogeneity Database (TAHD), only 86 include trade in services, 85 cover investments, 66 address environmental topics and 43 agreements tackle labour issues.
The world trading system based on rules laid out by the World Trade Organisation (WTO) is under acute threat by the United States blocking the reappointment of appeals judges and the standstill in the Doha Round negotiations. Reasons include the increasing number, heterogeneity and economic power of developing countries engaging in international trade and in multilateral trade negotiations. This article reviews the EU’s trade relations with developing countries from the early steps until today.
wiiw Monthly Report available for download. Die Verabschiedung des Allgemeinen Zoll- und Handelsabkommens (GATT), die Gründungsschritte in Richtung Europäische Union und der Beginn der Entkolonialisierung Afrikas liegen zeitlich sehr eng beieinander. So prägten die EU und ihre sukzessiven Erweiterungen von Anbeginn das Präferenzsystem der Welthandelsorganisation für Entwicklungsländer als auch die globale Verbreitung von Freihandelsabkommen. Letztere wird beschleunigt durch den Stillstand in den multilateralen Verhandlungen der „Doha-Entwicklungsrunde“ der Welthandelsorganisation (WTO) und in jüngster Vergangenheit durch den Rückzug der USA aus mega-regionalen Verhandlungen, aufflammende Handelskriege und gegen das Welthandelssystem gerichtete Drohungen. Bereits heute findet 40% des Handels der EU und 45% des österreichischen Handels mit Drittstaaten mit Partnerländern innerhalb des Rahmens eines Freihandelsabkommens statt. Sollten alle aktuellen Verhandlungen tatsächlich zu einem Abschluss kommen, würden 80% der Extra-EU-Handelsflüsse der EU und Österreichs über bi- oder plurilaterale FHA geregelt. Der Umfang der Abkommen variiert erheblich und zielt insbesondere bei der jüngeren Generation der EU-Abkommen nicht nur auf Reduktionen von Zöllen und Handelshemmnissen, sondern verstärkt auf die Harmonisierung von Standards ab. Da unterschiedliche Regulierungen (z.B. im Gesundheits- oder Umweltbereich) teilweise auf unterschiedliche Präferenzen der Bürger und Bürgerinnen zurückzuführen sind, ist davon auszugehen, dass der optimale Grad an Handelsliberalisierung und wirtschaftlicher Integration nach Partnerländern variiert. FIW Policy Brief (in German | auf Deutsch) zusammen mit Roman Stöllinger: Download. Folien zur AW Vorlesung (in German | auf Deutsch): Download.
Das Bundesministerium für Wissenschaft, Forschung und Wirtschaft (BMWFW) veranstaltet in Kooperation mit der Verwaltungsakademie des Bundes (VAB) im Rahmen des Forschungsschwerpunkts Internationale Wirtschaft (FIW) eine Seminarreihe, die allen an der Außenwirtschaft Interessierten offensteht, die sich Detailwissen zu ausgewählten Themen aneignen möchten.
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